Marketing Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W XYZ C-Type Response - a response to an advertisement or an advertising campaign which is immediately obvious. See S-Type Response. Call - a visit to a client or prospective buyer by a sales representative to gather information, make a sales presentation, secure an order, etc. Call Planning - the arrangement of a sales representative's visits to buyers into an orderly sequence, the setting of objectives, and the formulation of strategies for each call. Call Report - a written record of sales calls made by a representative for submission to a supervisor. See Call. Call-Back Approach - making a second or subsequent attempt to sell to a particular buyer, usually presenting the product from an entirely new angle. See Call. CALLPLAN - an interactive computer program for determining the optimal number of calls to be made on each of a salesperson's accounts. See Call. Canned Approach - see Stimulus-Response Approach. Cannibalisation - the loss of sales of an existing product to a new offering in the product line. See Planned Cannibalisation; Unplanned Cannibalisation. Capital Items - long-lived business assets (buildings, plant and equipment, etc) of a firm. Capitalist System - see Free Market System. Captioned Photograph - a photograph with a brief description of its contents, frequently issued by public relations personnel with news releases or feature articles. Captive Product - a product made specifically to be used with another, such as a refill with a ball-point pen, a blade with a razor, a battery with a torch, etc. Carload Freight Rate - a special rate offered to companies by railways to encourage them to ship in carload (c.l.) rather than less-than-carload (l.c.l.) quantities. Carrying Costs - costs associated with maintaining inventory, such as financing, storage, insurance and obsolescence. Carryover Effect in Advertising - the rate at which the effectiveness of an advertising campaign diminishes with the passing of time; for example, an advertising campaign this month may have a carryover effect of .50 next month. Cartel - a group of firms (or nations) attempting to act as a monopoly to control the market price. Case Allowance - discount allowed on products sold to retailers to encourage them to purchase in larger quantities. See Allowances. Cash-and-Carry Wholesalers Cash Cows - products or strategic business units within the organisation's mix which are characterised by high market share and low market growth; Cash Cows produce the revenue required to develop and support less successful or newer products. See Boston Consulting Group Portfolio Analysis Matrix; Dogs; Question Marks; Stars. Cash Discount - a reduction in price offered to a buyer in return for prompt settlement of account. See Discount. Cash Flow - the money required by a company to meet expenses in a given period. Cash Rebate - money refunded to customers who buy merchandise from retailers within a specified time; the rebate allows dealers to clear inventories without cutting list price. For example, a new car dealer might announce that everyone who purchases a certain vehicle in the current month at the regular price of $25,000 will receive a cash rebate of $2,000. Cash Refund Offers - Casual Product Classes - broad classifications of products used to describe markets in everyday terms, eg. the pet food market, the photocopier market, the breakfast foods market, etc. See Standard Product Classes. Catalogue Marketing - a form of direct marketing in which customers order from catalogues which are sent to them by mail; the ordered goods are shipped directly to them. Catalogue Showroom - see Catalogue Retailer. Catalogue Retailer - retailers who mail catalogues to their customers and maintain showrooms where samples of the products for sale are displayed; orders are filled from back-room warehouses. Also called Mail Order House. Category Manager - an individual responsible for the marketing strategies of all the brands in a product line; also referred to as a Product Line Manager. Causal Research - marketing research which examines the cause-and-effect relationship among variables. Caveat Emptor - a Latin term meaning "let the buyer beware". The term implies that it is the customer's responsibility rather than the seller's to ensure that the goods or services offered for sale are able to deliver the desired satisfactions. Caveat Emptor is totally contrary to the marketing concept. See Caveat Vendor. CBD - abbrev. Central Business District. Ceiling Price - see Price Ceiling. Celebrity Endorsements - see Celebrity Testimonials. Celebrity Testimonials - advertisements featuring endorsements of products by well-known personalities from the field of entertainment, sport, politics, etc. Census - the collection of data from all possible sources in a population. Central Business District - the region of a city where retail and other businesses are concentrated, with a consequent high volume of traffic. Centralised Exchange System - a system for the trading of goods which utilises a central market. See Decentralised Exchange System. Centre-of-Influence Method - a prospecting method based on referrals; a salesperson uses influential people (bankers, solicitors, consultants, etc) to obtain leads to potential buyers. See Key Influence People. Cents-Off Deal - see Price Packs. Chain Store - a group of retail stores, centrally owned and managed, generally carrying the same kind of merchandise. Channel - see Marketing Channels. Channel Captain - a member of a marketing channel assuming a leadership role in organising the system in order to lessen conflict, achieve economies of scale and maximise business impact. See Marketing Channels. Channel Conflict - discord among members in a marketing channel. See Horizontal Channel Conflict; Inter-type Channel Conflict; Marketing Channels; Vertical Channel Conflict. Channel Flows - the flow of physical goods and services, title, promotion, information and payment along a channel of distribution. See Marketing Channels. Channel Leadership - see Channel Captain. Channel Length - the number of levels of marketing intermediaries used in the channel of distribution. See Direct Marketing Channel; One Level Channel; Two Level Channel; Zero Level Channel. Channel Levels - see Channel Length. Channel Mix - the degree of intensivity selected for the distribution of a product. See Exclusive Distribution; Intensive Distribution; Selective Distribution. Channel of Distribution - see Marketing Channels. Channel Power - the circumstances - economic or social - that allow one channel member to control another. See Channel Captain. Channel Strategy - decision-making related to the selection of the most appropriate method of controlling the flow of goods or services from producer to end-user. Channel System - a method of linking customers and intermediaries by means of an integrated communication network, providing instant ordering, better cost analysis, better inventory control, etc. Chlorofluorocarbons - chemical substances believed to deplete the protective ozone layer of the earth's upper atmosphere; used until recently in refrigerants and in numerous aerosol products. Choice Set - the final set of brands from which a consumer makes a purchase choice after some brands in the awareness set have been considered and rejected. See Awareness Set. CIF - abbrev. Cost, Insurance and Freight. CIF Pricing - see Cost-Insurance-Freight Pricing. Citizen Action Public - one of the several types of public which may influence an organisation's decision-making; a group within a community which may exert pressure on an organisation to act in a certain way; pressure groups. See Pressure Group; Publics. Class Rate - the standard charge for the shipment of goods by a carrier. Classical Conditioning Classified Advertising - print media advertising in which similar goods and services are grouped together in categories under appropriate headings. Clincher - an additional inducement offered to a potential buyer by a salesperson in order to close a sale; inducements might include price discounts, rebates, extended credit, reduced delivery charges, etc. Close - the critical stage in the selling process when the salesperson attempts to obtain the buyer's commitment to the purchase. Closed Promotion - a sales promotion which is available only to a specific, high-potential target; for example, a bank might wish to target graduating university students and send coupons to them by mail. See Open Promotion. Closed Territory - an exclusive territory assigned to a reseller by a manufacturer; the reseller is required to sell only to customers within the territory. Closed territories are generally illegal under the Trade Practices Act. Closed-End Question - a question which allows a respondent to choose an answer from a given list. See Open-End Question. Closing - the act of gaining a commitment to purchase from a buyer; getting an order. Closing Signals - see Buying Signals. Closing Skill - the ability of a salesperson to obtain the buyer's commitment to the purchase. Closing Techniques - methods employed by a salesperson when asking for an order and aimed at obtaining a favourable response from a buyer. Cluster Analysis - a multivariate statistical technique used to identify entities with similar characteristics from those without them. Cluster Sample - a form of probability sample where respondents are drawn from a random sample of mutually exclusive groups (usually geographic areas) within a total population; also called an area sample. See Stratified Sample. Clutter - All non-programming time on radio and TV; this includes time given to advertsing commercials, station or channel promotions, station or channel identifications and program credits. Excessively high clutter levels may result in audience tune-out. See Clutter Level; Audience Tune-Out. Clutter Level - See Clutter; Audience Tune-Out. Cognitive Dissonance - a doubt that surfaces when a buyer becomes aware that an alternative product may offer more desirable benefits than the one purchased. The buyer wonders whether the right choice has been made. Cold Calling - making a sales call on a client without an appointment. Cold Canvassing - see Cold Calling Collusion - agreement between a group of companies to fix a common price. See Cartel. Combination Branding - emphasising a corporate or family name as well as an individual brand name in product marketing. See Corporate Branding; Family Brand. Command System - see Planned Economy; Controlled Allocation System. Commercial - a television advertisement . Commercial Traveller - a late nineteenth century term of American origin for a salesperson. Commercialisation - the final stage of the new product development process in which the decision is made to put the new product into full scale production and to launch it. See New Product Development; Product Launch. Commission - a payment made to a salesperson based on a percentage of the value of the goods sold. Commission Override - a commission paid to a sales manager based on a percentage of his or her salespeople's commissions. Commodity Markets - markets typified by the homogeneity of products and a virtual irrelevance of branding. Commodity Product - a product that cannot be significantly differentiated from competitors' products. Commodity Rate - a rate which is applied in any situation where freight is product specific rather than based on volume or weight; also called a Special Rate. Common Carrier - regular scheduled transportation services such as railways, airlines and trucking lines, available to all users. Common Market - a group of geographically associated countries limiting trade barriers among member nations and applying common tariffs to products from non-members; also known as regional trading blocks. See European Common Market. Communicability - the extent to which the benefits of a new product are likely to be noticed and discussed by consumers; a major determinant of the rate of new product adoption. Communication Effect of Advertising - the influence that an advertisement or some other form of promotional activity might have, is having, or has had, on consumers or on the usage of a product advertised. See Advertising Effectiveness. Communication Process - the process by which a message, encoded by a sender, is transmitted through a medium to a receiver, who encodes the message and provides feedback. Communications - see Marketing Communication. Company Mission - see Corporate Mission. Comparative Advertising - advertising in which a firm names a competitor's product and compares it with its own; also called Comparison Advertising. See Competitive Advertising. Comparative Influence - one of three types of influence exerted on consumers (with informational influence and normative influence) by reference groups; comparative influence occurs when the reference group provides the means by which consumers compare their beliefs, attitudes and behaviour - the more similarity there is between a consumer's opinions and those of his or her reference group, the greater the comparative influence of that group. See Reference Group; Informative Influence; Normative Influence. Comparison Advertising - see Comparative Advertising. Comparison Pricing - a pricing method in which the price for a new product is set by comparing the benefits it offers to those of other products in the same category. Compatibility - the extent to which a new product requires consumers to adjust to unfamiliar methods of use; a major determinant of the rate of new product adoption. See Adoption Rate Determinants. Compensation - remuneration for work done on behalf of another. Compensation Method - handling a buyer's objection by admitting the validity of the objection but pointing out some advantage that compensates for it. See Objections. Compensation Systems - schemes for remunerating salespeople for tasks performed; commonly used systems include straight salary, straight commission, and a combination of salary and incentives. Competition - see Competitors. Competition-Oriented Pricing - a method of pricing in which a manufacturer's price is determined more by the price of a similar product sold by a powerful competitor than by considerations of consumer demand and cost of production. See Cost-Plus Pricing; Target Return Pricing; Value Pricing. Competitive Advantage - that which one firm can do better than another to satisfy consumer needs and wants. Competitive Advertising - advertising which points out features of a brand which may not be available in other brands but does not directly name a competitor. See Comparative Advertising. Competitive Analysis - the assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of competing firms. Competitive Attack Strategies - options available for attacking a competitor; these include a frontal attack (head-on), a flanking attack (attack at a point of weakness), an encirclement attack (attack on several fronts at once), a by-pass attack (attack by diversifying into new territories, products or technologies) and a guerilla attack (attack by waging small, intermittent skirmishes). Competitive Bidding - a process in which buyers request potential suppliers to submit quotations or tenders for a proposed purchase or contract. Competitive Depositioning - attempting to change the beliefs of buyers about the attributes of a competitor's product; the attempt may be especially useful in cases where buyers generally have an inflated perception of the quality of a competitor's product. See Market Positioning. Competitive Environment - that part of the company's external environment which consists of other firms vying for patronage of the same market. Competitive Equilibrium - a market situation of relatively stable competitive position and activity. Competitive Myopia - marketing short-sightedness in regard to the activity of competitors. Competitive Niche - a segment in a market in which a company can compete effectively. Competitive Parity Budgeting - a method of allocating a promotion budget based on matching the activity of a major competitor. Competitive Position - an organisation's ranking in its industry by size and business strength; hypothetically, each competitor may be classified as a market leader, market challenger, market follower, or market nicher, according to the market share it holds. Competitive Scope - the breadth or narrowness of an organisation's focus as measured horizontally by the range of industries, market segments, or geographical regions it targets, or vertically by the degree to which it is integrated. Competitive Situation - the standing of an organisation in its markets, relative to its competitors, when all players are described in terms of their size, resources, capabilities, product range and quality, marketing strategies, opportunities, goals, intentions, behaviour and similar variables. See Competitive Position. Competitive Strategy - planning intended to give a company a competitive advantage over its competitors. Competitors - firms vying for patronage of the same market. See Brand Competitors; Enterprise Competitors; Generic Competitors; Product-Form Competitors; Service-Form Competitors. Complementary Product Pricing - the pricing of one product at the optimum level, regardless of cost or profit considerations, so that the demand for another product which is used with it will increase and so maximise the profits from both products together. Complete Segmentation - the division of a market into segments consisting of individual customers and tailoring a product and marketing program for each. See Custom Marketing; Customised Marketing Mix; Disaggregated Market. Complex Decision Making - in consumer behaviour, buying which is associated with the purchasing of high-involvement products which are important to the consumer and therefore require considerable thought and effort. Also referred to as Extensive Problem Solving. See High-Involvement Products. Complexity - the degree of difficulty which a purchaser of a new product has in understanding it; a major determinant of the rate of new product adoption. See Adoption Rate Determinants. Computer Modelling - constructing and manipulating computer-based simulations of marketing situations to examine the consequences of alternative courses of action; computer models, often developed from an analysis of historical data, may be used to determine the optimum level of advertising and other promotional expenditure, etc. See Advertising Budget Determination. Concentrated Marketing - a marketing segmentation strategy in which the firm concentrates its entire efforts and resources on serving one segment of the market; also called Niche Marketing. Concentrated Segmentation Strategy - one of four possible segmentation strategies (with market segment expansion strategy, product line expansion strategy and differentiated segmentation strategy); in a concentrated segmentation strategy a firm targets one product to one segment of the market. See Segmentation Strategies; Market Segment Expansion Strategy; Product Line Expansion Strategy; Differentiated Segmentation. Concentric Diversification - a growth strategy in which a company seeks to develop by adding new products, also called convergent diversification, to its existing product lines to attract new customers. See Conglomerate Diversification; Horizontal Diversification. Concept Development and Testing - a two-phase stage in the development of a new product in which potential buyers are presented first with the idea or description of the new product (concept testing) and later with the product itself in final or prototype form (product testing), in order to obtain their reaction. See Product Testing; New Product Development. Conference Selling - a selling situation in which a salesperson enlists the assistance of other people in the company (technicians, engineers, etc.) in meeting with a group of buyers from different firms to explain a new product or discuss problems and opportunities. See Group Selling; Team Selling. Conglomerate Diversification - a growth strategy in which a company seeks to develop by adding totally unrelated products and markets to its existing business. See Concentric Diversification; Horizontal Diversification. Conjoint Analysis - a statistical technique used to determine the optimal combination of variables. Conjunctive Model (of Brand Evaluation) - the idea that consumers establish minimum attribute levels which acceptable brands must possess; when about to make a purchase, they will consider only those brands that exhibit a conjunction of all the minimum requirements. Other models of brand evaluation include the expectancy-value model, ideal brand model, disjunctive model, lexicographic model and determinance model. Consequence Probes - verbal tactics used by a salesperson to illustrate the disadvantages to a buyer of not making a particular purchase. Consideration Set - see Evoked Set. Consultative Selling - an approach to personal selling emphasising the role of the salesperson as consultant; the salesperson assists the buyer to identify needs and find need-satisfactions in the product range, seeking to build long-term customer relationships leading to repeat business. See Relationship Selling. Consumables - see Consumer Non-Durables. Consumer Attitudes - see Attitudes. Consumer Behaviour - the behaviour of individuals when buying goods and services for their own use or for private consumption. Consumer Credit - finance made available by leading companies to consumers for purchases with arrangements having been made for the loan to be repaid with interest. Consumer Durables - a classification of consumer products consisting of goods with a long useful life, such as cars, electrical appliances and furniture. See Consumer Non-Durables. Consumer Franchise - the understanding consumers have of a brand. See Franchise-Building Sales Promotions. Consumer Goods - items purchased by consumers for personal and household use; consumer goods are classified as durables and non-durables. See Convenience Goods; Shopping Goods; Specialty Goods; Unsought Goods. Consumer Market - buyers and potential buyers of goods and services for personal and household use. Consumer Needs - Forces directed to specific goals that can be achieved by purchase behaviour. The motive force for directing to one brand or another. Consumer Non-Durables - a classification of frequently purchased consumer goods; non-durables are items which are consumed in one use or a few uses; expendables. Consumer non-durables are further sub-divided into packaged and non-packaged goods. See Consumer Durables; Packaged Goods; Non-Packaged Goods. Consumer Product Classes - categories of goods and services bought by consumers for their personal use; classes include convenience goods, shopping goods, specialty goods, unsought goods, and services. Consumer Research - marketing research into the requirements, opinions, attitudes, etc. of consumers. Consumer Rights - fair entitlements due to consumers when buying from producers and resellers. Consumer Sales Promotion - promotional activity - excluding advertising, personal selling and publicity - intended to motivate potential purchasers of personal and household products to buy. Consumer Wearout - a decrease in the effectiveness of an advertisement or promotional campaign due to boredom and familiarity. Consumerism - a social movement intended to safeguard the rights of consumers. Consummatory Advertising - advertising which stresses the benefits of taking immediate action to purchase. Contactual Reference Group - a group with which an individual has contact and which influences the individual's purchase decisions. See Aspirational Group; Dissociative Reference Group; Membership Group; Reference Groups. Containerisation - the transportation of unitised and palletised goods by means of large crates or containers. See Palletisation; Unitisation. Contests - a form of sales promotion in which consumers are induced to buy earlier, or in greater quantity, by the offer of prizes of cash or merchandise to be won in a competition. See Sales Promotion. Contingent Method - see "What if..." Method (of handling sales objections.) Continuity - the scheduling of media exposures of a particular advertisement or campaign evenly within a given period. See Flighting; Pulsing. Continuous Marketing Research - on-going marketing research (as opposed to that conducted for a specific purpose.) See Ad Hoc Marketing Research. Continuum of Planning - the idea that planning is a multi-level process, beginning at the top with corporate planning and going downwards through all divisions of the firm, with each subsequent level linked to the one above it by the over-riding mission and objectives of the corporation. Continuum of Sales Jobs - the idea that all kinds of sales jobs are similar in some respects but vary in the degree of difficulty involved; the difficulty is linked to the amount of creativity required in finding new customers and persuading them to buy, and to the tangibility and complexity of the product. Contract Carrier - a transportation firm operating exclusively in one industry and contracted to particular firms. Contract Law - the body of law relating to contracts. Contract Manufacturing - the production and marketing by agreement of a company's product by an overseas firm. Contract Rate - a charge negotiated between carrier and shipper for the transportation of a commodity; sometimes called a Negotiated Rate. Contractual Sales Force - salespeople who are not full or part-time paid representatives of a company but who sell for it on a commission basis. Contractual Vertical Marketing System - a form of vertical marketing system in which independent firms at different levels of distribution are tied together by contract to achieve economies of scale and greater sales impact. See Administered Vertical Marketing System; Corporate Vertical Marketing System; Vertical Marketing System. Control-Oriented Pricing - a system of pricing in which a product's price is controlled by government or by some regulating body. Controlled Allocation System - see Planned Economy; Command System. Convenience Goods - a category of consumer goods which are bought frequently, quickly and with a minimum of emotional involvement; the category includes staples, impulse goods and emergency goods. See Consumer Product; Emergency Goods; Impulse Goods; Staples. Convenience Product - a category of consumer product purchased frequently and with little thought and effort. Convenience Sample - a form of nonprobability sample in which the researcher selects readily available respondents. Convenience Store - a neighbourhood store which stocks frequently purchased items such as milk, bread and cigarettes. Convergent Diversification - Disversification into related businesses. See Concentric Diversification; Divergent Acquisition; Diversification. Conversional Marketing - marketing activity intended to get people to change their ideas and attitudes about something they dislike. Cooling-Off Period - a short period of time, usually a few days, in which purchasers of a product may void a sale contract if they change their minds about purchasing the goods offered. Cooperative Advertising - advertising sponsored by two or more organisations to promote the goods or services of each. Copy Strategy Statement - a document prepared by advertising agency executives as a guide for their creative staff in the preparation and execution of an advertisement; the copy strategy statement describes the objectives, content, support and tone of the desired advertisement. Copy Testing - the pre-testing of advertising copy for print advertisements, usually by giving respondents a portfolio of dummy advertisements in a magazine format and asking them to recall copy points; or the post-testing of advertising copy, usually by asking respondents to look through an actual magazine and then comment on advertisements they remember. Copycat Product - a product that has been designed, branded or packaged to look exactly like that of a well-established competitor; a cheap imitation. Copyright - protection in law afforded to authors, musicians, artists, etc. in respect to the works they have created. Core Product - the intangible benefit or service offered by a product; for example, the core product offered to a purchaser of shampoo is clean, healthy hair. See Actual Product; Augmented Product. Corporate Advertising - a form of institutional advertising focussing not on a particular product or product range but on the organisation itself; the objective of corporate advertising may be patronage, image or issue. See Corporate Image Advertising; Corporate Issue Advertising; Corporate Patronage Advertising; Institutional Advertising. Corporate Branding - associating the name of a corporation with the individual brand name in product marketing, usually to ensure that new product introductions will be more readily accepted; differs from family branding in that corporate branding is used for all products of the company or division rather than merely for a family of brands. See Family Brand; Individual Brand; Individual Brand Name; Product Line Brand Name; Single Brand Name. Corporate Culture - the particular strategies, style, systems, environment and shared values within an organisation which contribute to its individuality. Corporate Family Name - see Family Brand. Corporate Image - the identity or perception of itself that an organisation attempts to convey to its publics, usually through corporate advertising. See Corporate Advertising; Corporate Image Advertising. Corporate-Image Advertising - advertising aimed at establishing an identity for a firm in the public mind. See Corporate Advertising; Corporate Image. Corporate-Issue Advertising - advertising in which an organisation states publicly its position on a controversial issue. See Advocacy Advertising; Corporate Advertising. Corporate Logo - a mark, design, symbol, etc. used to identify, and reflect an appropriate image of a company or organisation; a form of institutional reminder advertising. Corporate Mission Statement - the answer to the question "What business are we in?"; the corporate mission statement, with a broad focus and a customer orientation, provides management with a sense of purpose. Corporate Objectives - specific, realistic and measurable goals which an organisation plans to achieve within a given period of time. Corporate-Patronage Advertising - advertising which encourages customers to patronise the firm. See Corporate Advertising. Corporate Planning - planning at the highest level in an organisation, involving an analysis of the current situation, the setting of objectives, the formulation of strategies and tactics, implementation and evaluation. See Strategic Planning. Corporate Sponsorship - a form of below-the-line advertising in which a corporation offers funding to a group, association, sporting body, etc. in return for a range of promotional opportunities. See Below-the-Line Advertising. Corporate Strategic Planning - see Strategic Planning. Corporate Umbrella - a term used in reference to the use made of the corporate name and corporate image as a shield for new product introductions, etc. Corporate Vertical Marketing System - a system of distribution channel organisation in which the orderly flow of products from producer to end-user is controlled by common ownership of the different levels of the system. See Administered Vertical Marketing System; Contractual Vertical Marketing System; Vertical Marketing System. Corrective Advertising - advertising to correct erroneous claims or misleading messages in previous promotional announcements. Correlation Techniques - a range of statistical techniques used to discover relationships between diverse elements in a marketing situation. Cost Advantage - the competitive edge which can be gained by one company over another by reducing production or marketing costs or both so that it can offer cheaper prices or use excess profits to bolster promotion or distribution. See Absolute Cost Advantage; Marketing Advantage. Cost of Goods Sold - the price paid by a company for the goods it sells to its customers. Cost-Insurance-Freight Pricing - a pricing approach common in exporting; the price quoted to the buyer includes "cost, insurance and freight". Cost Leadership Advantage Cost-Per-Thousand Criterion - a measure for comparing the cost effectiveness of media vehicles, calculated by dividing the cost of an advertisement in a particular medium by the number of thousands of its circulation. Cost-Plus Pricing - a simple method of pricing in which a specified amount or percentage, known as the standard mark-up, is added to the unit cost of production of an item to determine its selling price. See Competition-Oriented Pricing; Target Return Pricing; Value Pricing. Cost/Profit Analysis - a sales management control measure involving the calculation of expenditure incurred in making sales; profitability analysis. Counsellor Approach - see Adviser Close. Counter Advertising - advertising sponsored by pressure groups in opposition to certain products. Counterfeiting - the copying of a competitor's well-known products. Some counterfeit products are intended to look as much like the original as possible, including the brand name; others are close, but not exact, copies; still others are cheap and unconvincing imitations. Counterfeiting is generally illegal. Countermarketing - marketing activity intended to abolish interest in, and demand for, a product. Countertrade - a system of international trade based on bartering; such transactions may or may not involve cash payments. Coupon - a popular form of sales promotion, distributed on the package of the product, by direct mail, or in newspaper and magazine advertisements; the consumer is usually offered "cents-off" the next purchase upon presentation of the coupon. CPA - abbrev. Critical Path Analysis. CPT - abbrev. Cost-Per-Thousand. Creative Selling - an approach to selling in which salespeople aggressively seek out customers and use well-planned strategies to secure orders. Credit - the allowance of time in which to pay for a purchase. See Consumer Credit. Credit Card - a small card, usually of plastic, used to obtain consumer products without immediate payment; the card is issued by a financial institution on the understanding that the consumer repays sums spent against the card with interest. Credit Terms - conditions negotiated between seller and buyer relating to the time within which the buyer is obliged to pay for the products purchased and any discounts to be allowed by the seller for earlier payment or additional services performed. Critical-Path Analysis - a planning technique used to keep projects on schedule; a flowchart shows time allotments and priorities for each activity. Cross Elasticity of Demand - a measure of the affect a change in the price of one product will have on the demand for a substitute or complementary product. See Elasticity of Demand. Cross-Over Selling - see Cross-Selling. Cross-Selling - selling by a salesperson of some part of the company's total product range for which another division or salesperson has prime responsibility. Cues - an environmental entity (advertisement, sign, store display, etc) which results in a specific response to satisfy a drive. See Learning. Cultural Diversity - the range of different value systems existing in a multicultural society. Cultural Values - ideas, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, principles, etc long cherished by members of a society. Culture - the basic beliefs and values cherished by a society as a whole and handed down from one generation to the next. Cumulative Quantity Discount - a price reduction offered to a purchaser in which the amount of the discount increases over time with the volume purchased. See Non-Cumulative Quantity Discount. Curbside Sales Training - informal coaching or training of a sales representative by a supervisor in the field. See Buddy System; Formal Training; On-the-Job Training. Current Ratio - the commonest of three financial ratios used to evaluate a firm's liquidity; current assets are expressed as a percentage of current liabilities. See Acid-Test Ratio; Quick Ratio. Curve Fitting - a method of analysing associative data in which a number of possible curve shapes - straight lines, concave, convex, s-shaped etc - are used with historical data to discover trends or relationships. Custom Marketing - marketing activity in which a company attempts to satisfy the unique needs of every customer; also called Market Atomisation Strategy. See Disaggregated Market; Complete Segmentation; Customised Marketing Mix. Custom Publishing - the publishing of a magazine by an organisation wishing to strengthen its bonds with its customers and to exercise greater control over the editorial environment in which its advertisements appear; a custom published magazine will usually carry outside advertisements as well in order to defray the cost of the launch and lend an air of legitimacy. Jenny Craig International, Mary Kay Cosmetics, the Benetton Group and IBM Corp. have all launched magazines. Customary Price - the traditional price; the price that consumers expect to pay for a certain product. Customer Orientation - see Customer-Oriented Management. Customer Record - a card, slip or computer file on which is recorded pertinent facts about a prospect or customer (name, address, account history, etc.) as an aid to making a sale when next contacted by a salesperson. Customer Relations Department - a division of an organisation with responsibility for ensuring that customers are satisfied with the goods or services they have purchased and with the way the organisation has served them. Customer Retention - maintaining the existing customer base by establishing good relations with all who buy the company's product. Customer Service - a wide variety of activities intended to ensure that customers receive the goods and services they require to satisfy their needs or wants in the most effective and efficient manner possible. Customer-Driven Distribution Systems - a system of distribution designed with customer requirements rather than a company's convenience in mind. Customer Need management Customer Orientation - see Customer-Oriented Management - a management philosophy or state-of-mind in which it is recognised that the effective and efficient satisfaction of customer needs and wants provides the surest means of achieving the organisation's own goals. Customer Panels - see Focus Group. Customer Philosophy Customer Retention Customer Surveys - Customer Training - training in the proper and efficient use of equipment given by a vendor to its customer's employees; provision of training by the vendor not only adds value to the product but also offers the vendor a means of differentiating itself from suppliers of the same or similar equipment. Customer Value Analysis - an organisation's rating of the value it provides to its customers relative to that provided by its competitors. Customised Marketing Mix - in international marketing, a marketing program uniquely designed for a particular country. See Complete Segmentation; Custom Marketing; Disaggregated Market; Market Atomisation Strategy.